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KEY TAKEAWAYS

Establishing the severity of spice-induced paranoid ideation or dissociation using psychological assessment tools (e.g. DES-II, PANSS)
Strengthening coping skills using CBT and mindfulness to counteract mood swings and anxiety experienced by 55% [1]
Liaising with housing and audiology services to support patients struggling with homelessness and persistent auditory hallucinations as required

Below, we discuss possible approaches that meet the specific rehab needs around spice. Not all treatment centres will provide these specific interventions.

For an overview of the Abbeycare programme contents for spice rehab, click here.

When Is Rehab For Spice Addiction Needed?

Emotional Volatility

Mood swings in 55% of heavy users (up to 8.5g daily) within 1 – 2 hours of last use means spice rehab is necessary to mitigate the 2-fold increased risk of suicidal ideation within 12 months because [1][2]:

4-step safety plans are created for patients who are passively suicidal to identify depressive symptoms (e.g. low mood), develop internal coping strategies (e.g. reading a book), and practice distraction techniques (e.g. calling a friend) [3][4]
Patients are encouraged to create a “hope-box” to reinforce "reasons for living" by filling the box with 1 new item every week (e.g., a photograph from university graduation) to disrupt the cycle of despair and recreate positive feelings (e.g. proud)[4]

The Four Quadrants of Care Model (e.g. II = more severe mental disorder/less severe SUD) is used to make treatment/referral decisions during rehab, as inpatient psychiatric care with 24-hour supervision is required for patients who are actively suicidal after abusing spice [3].

Chronic Dissociation

Chronic dissociation means spice rehab is necessary because, despite pharmacological treatment (e.g. fluoxetine), some users experience emotional numbing and sensations of “being in a dream” for up to 17 months after cessation [5]:

Spice rehab counsellors are trained in recognising signs of dissociation (e.g. glazed eyes, monotonous voice) and encourage patients to practice grounding techniques (e.g. naming blue objects, “toe-wiggling”) to become aware of the “here and now” [6]
The Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES-II) is regularly administered to assess the severity of patients’ symptoms (e.g. staring into space), and interventions (e.g. 10-minute leaf and stream mindfulness exercise) are implemented as needed [6]
Boundaries (e.g. no interpersonal touch) are set and reinforced between patients to avoid triggering dissociative reactions (e.g. flashbacks) because 50% of users have high levels of dissociation (DES score ≥30) after abusing spice for 12+ months [6][7]

Using Spice As A Coping Mechanism For Trauma

Using spice as a coping mechanism for trauma means spice rehab is necessary because up to 71% of patients use the drug to relieve tension, help “deal with pain”, or “get away from troubles” despite having moderate depression (BDI score = 24.9) after drug-taking [8]:

Individualised treatment plans are developed after 1 - 3 hour clinical interviews take place during spice rehab to identify traumatic events (e.g. rape) experienced by the patient and subsequent symptoms (e.g. helplessness) that led to spice misuse [6]
Psychoeducation uses the SAFE approach to enhance coping skills by focusing on safety, regulating emotions, addressing loss, and redefining the future to promote resilience instead of taking up to 8 ‘hits’ per session to produce a ‘dream-like state’ [6][9]

Some spice rehabs provide weekly 90-minute exposure therapy or EMDR sessions to help patients manage trauma-related symptoms (e.g. hyperarousal) by processing distressing memories using imagery, in vivo exposure, and 8 phases (e.g. body scan) because [6]:

Individuals with PTSD are 12x more likely to take spice to cope with intrusive thoughts/flashbacks after a traumatic event (e.g. near-fatal car crash) due to the drug’s ability to induce memory loss in up to 43% [9][10]
Up to 26% experience blackouts and panic attacks after smoking spice 4 times a day, and counsellors implement strategies that promote safety (e.g. minimising loud noises) to manage surges of panic triggered by trauma-related memories or objects [6][11]

Detox In Spice Rehab

Spice detox during rehab works by symptomatically treating spice withdrawal symptoms (e.g. hypertension, tremors, night terrors) using medication (e.g. 0.175mg Clonidine) within the first 24 - 96 hours of cessation, and continuing for up to 28 days if required [12].

Therapy In Spice Rehab

Counteracting Spice-Induced Emotional Blunting

Therapy during rehabilitation for spice addiction aims to address the 17% reduction in emotional processing abilities in response to anger, sadness, happiness, neutrality, and fear after taking spice over 200 times within 12 months by [13]:

Incorporating 10-minute guided mindfulness exercises (e.g. Leaf and Stream Metaphor) into sessions to build psychological flexibility and regain emotional control by “standing back and observing” thoughts, feelings, and sensations [6]
Providing resources (e.g. "thoughts, emotions, behaviour" handout) during 50-minute recovery skills sessions for patients to discuss how emotions (e.g. sadness) are neither ‘good’ nor ’bad’ and how feelings connect to body language and behaviour [14]
Encouraging patients to engage in daily journaling, deep-breathing, or exercise to recognise and cope with uncomfortable emotions (e.g. shame) to prevent emotional "buildups" or numbness in response to emotional pain [14]

Real And False Memory Treatment

Therapy during treatment for spice addiction aims to address the 4-fold increase in confabulation (unintentional creation of false memories to compensate for memory gaps) and temporal sequencing difficulties after using up to 7g daily for 4 years by [16]:

Providing patients with direct feedback, logical reasoning, and evidence (e.g. photos, letters) during weekly counselling sessions to encourage the recognition of errors using a non-judgmental approach whilst avoiding confrontation or questioning
Incorporating an errorless learning approach with positive reinforcement into sessions, and validating patients' feelings (e.g. fear) and physical responses (e.g. shaking) associated with a memory (e.g. sexual trauma) despite being falsely recalled
Using compensatory strategies (e.g. time planner) and memory aids (e.g. repetition, use of music) during group CBT or psychoeducation sessions to enhance executive functioning, memory, and insight into confabulations [17]

Some rehabs provide 30-minute cognitive training sessions alongside CBT and motivational enhancement therapy to restore working memory, inhibitory control, and sustained attention abilities after abusing synthetic cannabinoids 2 – 3 times per week [18].

Aftercare Planning In Spice Rehab

Alternative Housing Solutions

Aftercare planning in spice addiction treatment involves liaison with supportive housing services (e.g. Accessing Change Together) to address the high rates (83%) of spice use in homeless populations by [19]:

Facilitating stays in temporary accommodation (2 year maximum) with support workers who provide housing-related support (e.g. budgeting) 5 days a week to prevent patients with no fixed abode from taking 7g of spice daily to induce sleep [20][21]
Enabling access to affordable housing (e.g. 1-bedroom self-contained flat) with assistance in instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs), including paying bills and home maintenance (e.g. cleaning a kitchen) rather than “sofa-surfing” after rehab [19][20]
Referring patients to housing services that emphasise “LIFE” (living independently and feeling enabled) to strengthen wellbeing, skills, and physical health to prevent individuals from using 3g of spice to relieve physical pain whilst living on the streets [19][20]

Rehab facilities liaise with housing services to provide specialist support (e.g. life enhancement skills) because the likelihood of spice misuse reduces by 50% in homeless patients who receive drug support (e.g. recovery connections) and become employed [19].

Sound Distortion Therapy Sessions

Aftercare planning in spice addiction treatment involves liaison with hearing health care services (e.g. audiologists, otolaryngologists) to address any auditory disturbances (e.g. command hallucinations) that persist after treatment by:

Initiating referrals for patients to receive 8 – 12 weekly Metacognitive Therapy Attention Training sessions to regain attentional control and disrupt self-focus or rumination using 10 – 12-minute listening tasks (e.g ATT)
Linking patients to self-help groups (e.g. Hearing Voices Network) to discuss coping strategies for hearing voices and/or having visions during weekly 90-minute peer-led meetings

Sound distortion counselling sessions are not offered at Abbeycare, and liaison with outpatient providers is necessary for the management of any remaining sound distortions after spice addiction treatment.

How Does Synthetic Cannabinoid Induced Psychosis Change Spice Rehab?

Synthetic Cannabinoid induced psychosis changes spice rehabilitation because:

Counsellors adapt 45 – 60-minute CBT sessions to focus on normalising symptoms (e.g. hallucinations) to lessen the fear surrounding the patient’s experience using the “Stress-vulnerability Model” and the “Four-factor Cognitive Model” [22]
Antipsychotics (e.g. 100mg Quetiapine) are required alongside therapy to manage persecutory delusions, speech automatisms, paranoia, and hallucinations in up to 33% of patients who experience psychosis after 5 – 24 months of spice misuse [23]
Socratic questioning (e.g. “Do you have any evidence to prove it is in there?”) is used to challenge delusions in patients who claim to have been “wiretapped” by intelligence agencies after abstaining from daily spice use [22][23]
The Four Quadrants Model is required to assess whether psychiatric hospitalisation is necessary based on the severity/duration of psychosis (e.g. grandiose delusions for 4 - 6 weeks rather than 10 – 14 days) after detoxing from spice [3][23]

Roberto et al. (2016) found that an 18-year-old ex-spice user no longer had paranoid ideation and delusions about being tracked by security guards after taking 5mg of risperidone daily during a structured rehab programme for patients with a dual diagnosis [24].

How Does Non-Linear Withdrawal Change Spice Rehab?

Non-linear withdrawal changes spice rehabilitation because:

Rehab treatment may be extended by 4 – 8 weeks for up to 31% of patients who develop paranoid schizophrenia after abusing spice, due to “delayed flashbacks” after 1 month of cessation, requiring 75mg Haloperidol daily to manage psychotic agitation [25]
For every extra gram of spice used per session, the number of withdrawal symptoms (e.g. low mood) after 1 day of cessation increases by around 13%, potentially requiring antidepressants (e.g. 50mg sertraline) and liaison with mental health services [26]
10% of patients have co-occurring alcohol addictions, requiring hourly monitoring, higher doses of diazepam (e.g. 5 vs 25mg), and regular assessments using the Alcohol Withdrawal Scale (AWS) to prevent delirium tremens [1]
Referrals to psychiatric services are required for 9% of patients diagnosed with a psychotic disorder during rehab, as although vomiting, sweating, and hypertension typically last 5 – 9 days after abstaining, hallucinations/delusions last up to 18 months [23]

Spice Rehab Outcomes

Abstinence Rate

The abstinence rate of spice rehabilitation is 90% in 15 – 55-year-old patients who previously smoked spice via cigarettes up to 4 times a day [11].

Nagy et al. (2022) found that 11 out of 26 spice patients were abstinent 6 months after receiving a 7 - 10-day detox, weekly individual and group therapy, and morning meditations guided by a psychologist during a 6-week stay at an inpatient rehab [27].

Dietz & Dunn (2014) found that a 28-year-old maintained sobriety 5 months after receiving weekly 2-hour psychoeducation, coping skills training, relapse prevention, and motivational interviewing sessions to address severe spice addiction (e.g. 30 uses daily) [15].

Reducing Psychiatric Symptoms

Spice rehabilitation reduces symptoms of anxiety (e.g. excessive worrying and rumination) and depression (e.g. suicidal ideation) by 89 – 97% within 9 months using 2-hour DBT, motivational interviewing, and psychoeducational counselling sessions during treatment [15].

Hallucinations, persecutory, and grandiose delusions are reduced by 32% within 7 days of inpatient spice addiction treatment due to the clinical management of psychosis using antipsychotics (e.g. 20mg Olanzapine daily) and psychological assessments (e.g. PANSS) [28].

Zimmermann et al. (2009) found that an 18-year-old's anxiety, depression, and irritability subsided within 21 days of receiving 4 weekly CBT sessions during treatment for chronic spice abuse (1 - 3g daily for 18 months), and the patient abstained 4 months post-rehab [12].

Reducing Emotional Numbness

Spice rehabilitation reduces anhedonia and apathy by 59% within 8 weeks because [15]:

Coping skills training is provided, and daily 30-minute self-care practices (e.g. reading) are encouraged, enabling patients to identify/express emotions (e.g. sadness) rather than consuming spice 20 – 30 times a day to “stuff them down”
Mindfulness exercises, distraction, and self-soothing techniques are used to help patients process emotions and build distress tolerance skills by mentally sorting thoughts into labelled ‘bins’ or listening to music to aid emotional regulation
Psychoeducation is adapted to focus on challenging myths about emotions, letting go of emotional suffering, and understanding the difference between emotional reactions towards the environment and the self [15]

Spice Rehab At Abbeycare

Abbeycare's 28-day spice addiction treatment programme includes:

A 7-day medically managed detox using symptomatic treatment (e.g. 40mg Propranolol or 50mg Quetiapine) to treat physical (e.g. profuse sweating) and psychological (e.g. paranoid ideation) spice withdrawal symptoms as needed
Daily 1 – 2-hour counselling sessions, mindfulness groups, feelings check-ins, and weekly visits to a local hotel for patients to access a pool, gym, and sauna to aid emotional regulation and strengthen mental flexibility via exercise and deep breathing
Collaborative aftercare planning between patients and keyworkers, including weekly support group attendance and attaining stable housing or employment, to be discussed during 1-hour sessions and presented to peers in the 3rd stage of the programme

References

[1] Macfarlane, Vicki, and Grant Christie. “Synthetic Cannabinoid Withdrawal: A New Demand on Detoxification Services.” Drug and Alcohol Review, vol. 34, no. 2, Jan. 2015, pp. 147–53. Accessed 5 June 2025.“The most commonly reported withdrawal symptoms were agitation, 89% (n = 16,); irritability, 83% (n = 15); anxiety, 55% (n = 10); and mood swings 55% (n = 10), ... These often occurred within 1–2 h of last use. Clients were all young men with a history of heavy use of synthetic cannabinoids (average daily use 8.5 g) prior to admission.”
[2] Clayton, Heather B., et al. “Health Risk Behaviors with Synthetic Cannabinoids versus Marijuana.” Pediatrics, vol. 139, no. 4, Mar. 2017. Accessed 5 June 2025.“Table 4.”
[3] Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Substance Use Disorder Treatment for People with Co-Occurring Disorders UPDATED 2020 TREATMENT IMPROVEMENT PROTOCOL TIP 42. 2020. Accessed 5 June 2025. “Counselors should conduct a suicide risk assessment to more thoroughly determine the client’s potential for self-harm, ... from the National Institute of Mental Health's Ask Suicide-Screening Questions (ASQ) Toolkit, ... ask questions like: “Do you have any thoughts of killing yourself now?”
[4] Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Addressing Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors in Substance Abuse Treatment. A Treatment Improvement Protocol TIP 50. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2009. Accessed 5 June 2025.“Vignette 6—Rena.”
[5] Dadi, Ghita, et al. “Persistent Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder Induced by Synthetic Cannabinoids.” American Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 173, no. 8, Aug. 2016, pp. 839–40. Accessed 5 June 2025.“The patient asked for help nearly 6 months later, noting continuing unrest even though he immediately stopped using K2 and cannabis, ... He described a detachment from his own thoughts, body, and feelings and his impression ‘of not being there.’ ... He received fluoxetine treatment for 6 months without any improvement. The symptoms remained persistent for more than 17 months.”
[6] Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Trauma-Informed Care in Behavioral Health Services. Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series 57. 2014. Accessed 5 June 2025.“Exhibit 1.4-1: Grounding Techniques.”
[7] Yücens, Bengü, et al. “The Severity of Dissociative Symptoms among Patients with Cannabis and Synthetic Cannabinoid Use Disorder: Association with Substance Use Characteristics and Suicide.” Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology, vol. 29, no. 4, Aug. 2018, pp. 603–8. Accessed 5 June 2025. “Table 2.”
[8] Bonar, Erin E., et al. “Synthetic Cannabinoid Use among Patients in Residential Substance Use Disorder Treatment: Prevalence, Motives, and Correlates.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol. 143, Oct. 2014, pp. 268–71. Accessed 6 June 2025.“Table 2.”
[9] Vandrey, Ryan, et al. “A Survey Study to Characterize Use of Spice Products (Synthetic Cannabinoids).” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol. 120, no. 1-3, Jan. 2012, pp. 238–41. Accessed 6 June 2025.“Table 1.”
[10] Grant, Sean, et al. “Associations of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms with Marijuana and Synthetic Cannabis Use among Young Adult U.S. Veterans: A Pilot Investigation.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, vol. 77, no. 3, May 2016, pp. 509–14. Accessed 6 June 2025.“Table 1.”
[11] Abdelmoneim, Wafaa M., et al. “Clinical Pattern of Synthetic Cannabinoids Users in Upper Egypt: Cross-Sectional Study.” Middle East Current Psychiatry, vol. 29, no. 1, Mar. 2022. Accessed 6 June 2025.“Users stated having panic attacks related to the use of SCs then eventually passed out (26%), ... others suffered convulsion and fell on the floor prior to blackouts (8%).”
[12] Zimmermann, Ulrich S., et al. “Withdrawal Phenomena and Dependence Syndrome after the Consumption of ‘Spice Gold.’” Deutsches Ärzteblatt International, vol. 106, no. 27, July 2009, pp. 464–67. Accessed 6 June 2025..“A 20-year old patient reported that he had smoked ‘Spice Gold’ daily for 8 months, ... On hospital days 4–7, he developed inner unrest, drug craving, nocturnal nightmares, profuse sweating, nausea, tremor, ... Oral single administrations of promethazine 25 mg and clonidine 0.175 mg decreased the blood pressure.”
[13] Cohen, Koby, et al. “Chronic Use of Synthetic Cannabinoids Is Associated with Impairment in Working Memory and Mental Flexibility.” Frontiers in Psychiatry, vol. 11, June 2020. Accessed 6 June 2025. There was a main group effect on Pr rates [F (2, 88) = 4.67, p < 0.05] (Figure 2A). Post-hoc tests indicated that SC-users showed less sensitivity (M = 0.55, SD = 0.18) than non-users (M = 0.66, SD = 0.09) [t (58) = 2.88, p < 0.05].”
[14] Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Counselor’s Treatment Manual Matrix Intensive Outpatient Treatment for People with Stimulant Use Disorders. 2006. Accessed 6 June 2025.“These sessions typically involve small groups (10 people maximum) and are relatively short (50 minutes), ... Clients learn that emotions can act as triggers and discuss tools that will help them avoid dangerous emotions.”
[15] Dietz, Alyssa R., and Michael E. Dunn. “The Use of Motivational Interviewing in Conjunction with Adapted Dialectical Behavior Therapy to Treat Synthetic Cannabis Use Disorder.” Clinical Case Studies, vol. 13, no. 6, Jan. 2014, pp. 455–71. Accessed 6 June 2025.“Amelia reported smoking synthetic marijuana (Spice) up to 40 times per day, with a typical pattern of 20 to 30 times daily, ... A clinical psychology doctoral student delivered twenty-seven 120-min treatment sessions over the course of 9 months, ... Amelia reported continued success at 5 months post-treatment.”
[16] Sant, Kristian. Beyond the Highs of Synthetic Cannabinoids: A Study on Cognitive Function. 2022. Accessed 9 June 2025."Table 16.”
[17] Brooks, Elinor. Exploring the Clinical Management of Confabulation within Neuropsychology Services. Oct. 2022. Accessed 9 June 2025.“Table 4.”
[18] Sweeney, Mary M., et al. “Working Memory Training for Adolescents with Cannabis Use Disorders: A Randomized Controlled Trial.” Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, vol. 27, no. 4, Apr. 2018, pp. 211–26. Accessed 9 June 2025.“Training sessions consisted of up to 25 30-minute sessions one to four times per week, ... The training program consisted of 12 exercises (eight per session) that require the maintenance and manipulation of sequences of verbal and/or visuospatial information in working memory.”
[19] Coombs, Thomas, et al. “New Psychoactive Substances in the Homeless Population: A Cross-Sectional Study in the United Kingdom.” International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, vol. 22, Mar. 2023. Accessed 9 June 2025,“The most widely consumed NPS among the homeless population was the class of SCRAs named ‘Spice’, of which 83.3% (n = 60) of NPS users consumed, ... Just under half (45.8%) of the homeless NPS users consumed ‘Spice’ to relieve physical and psychological pain.”
[20] Middlesbrough Council. Accessing Change Together . 6 Nov. 2024. Accessed 9 June 2025.“ACT (Accessing Change Together) is here to help anyone who needs support with domestic abuse, homelessness, or substance use. Rainham House is temporary accommodation for women aged 18 years and over, who are homeless and have support needs. The maximum stay is two years.”
[21] Gray, Paul, et al. “The Use of Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists (SCRAs) within the Homeless Population: Motivations, Harms and the Implications for Developing an Appropriate Response.” Addiction Research & Theory, vol. 29, no. 1, Mar. 2021, pp. 1–10. Accessed 9 June 2025.“I first started at half a gram and I’d probably get about 30 spliffs out of it. ... Now I’m up to smoking seven grams [a day], ... It helps you sleep. [The] amount of times I’ve done that in the car park I used to sleep in.”
[22] Kingdon, David, and Douglas Turkington. THE CASE STUDY GUIDE to COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY of PSYCHOSIS. 2002. Accessed 9 June 2025.“Jane was seen on a weekly basis with sessions usually lasting between 45 to 60 minutes, ... Jane was able to accept the stress-vulnerability model, which was used to explain the exacerbation of her psychotic symptoms. In particular she was pleased to be able to normalise the way she had felt.”
[23] V. Yu. Skryabin, and M. A. Vinnikova. “Clinical Characteristics of Synthetic Cannabinoid-Induced Psychotic Disorders: A Single-Center Analysis of Hospitalized Patients.” Journal of Addictive Diseases, vol. 37, no. 3-4, Taylor & Francis, Oct. 2018, pp. 135–41. Accessed 9 June 2025.“Patients presented delusional ideas that they were deprived of their will, their actions were imposed from outside, someone was wiretapping them through special equipment (as a rule, it were various intelligence agencies). Duration of SC use in the targeted cohort of patients ranged from 5 months to 2 years.”
[24] Roberto, Aaron J., et al. “First-Episode of Synthetic Cannabinoid-Induced Psychosis in a Young Adult, Successfully Managed with Hospitalization and Risperidone.”Case Reports in Psychiatry, vol. 2016, 2016, pp. 1–4. Accessed 9 June 2025.“He was stabilized over 1.5 weeks on oral risperidone, 2 mg in the morning and 3 mg at bedtime, with resolution of paranoid ideation, abnormal thought processes.”
[25] Bokhan, N. A., and G. Yu. Selivanov. “Psychiatric Comorbidity and Synthetic Cannabinoid (Spice) Abuse Syndrome.” Journal of Concurrent Disorders, June 2023. Accessed 10 Jun 2025.“The primary group of patients with endogenous mental disorders consisted of 140 individuals diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia (PS) and concurrent addiction to synthetic cannabinoids, ... 9 had residual and delayed psychotic states of the “flashback” type due to the use of SC, ... with long-term therapy, there were combinations of prolonged typical antipsychotics (haloperidol 75 ± 9.45 mg.”
[26] Craft, Sam, et al. “Clinical Withdrawal Symptom Profile of Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists and Comparison of Effects with High Potency Cannabis.” Psychopharmacology, vol. 239, Sept. 2021, pp. 1349–57. Accessed 10 June 2025.“Withdrawal symptoms after not using SCRAs for >1 day; most frequently reported were sleep issues (59.2%), ... for every additional gram of SCRAs used, the number of withdrawal symptoms increased by around 13%.”
[27] Nagy, Nahla El Sayed, et al. “Assessment of Addiction Management Program and Predictors of Relapse among Inpatients of the Psychiatric Institute at Ain Shams University Hospital.” Middle East Current Psychiatry, vol. 29, no. 1, Oct. 2022. Accessed 10 June 2025.“Table 3.”
[28] Bonaccorso, Stefania, et al. “Synthetic Cannabinoid Use in a Case Series of Patients with Psychosis Presenting to Acute Psychiatric Settings: Clinical Presentation and Management Issues.” Brain Sciences, vol. 8, no. 7, July 2018, p. 133. Accessed 10 June 2025..“The total PANSS score was 109/210 and the UDS was positive for SCRAs. We decided to increase Olanzapine to 20 mg, daily and to add Clonazepam 8 mg, daily to manage the agitated behaviour and the psychotic symptoms, ... his symptoms improved in 24 h and within 7 days from the acute intoxication the PANSS scores reduced to 74/210.”

About the author

Mischa Ezekpo

Mischa Ezekpo has a Bachelors degree in Psychology from Northumbria
University, and a Masters degree in Childhood Development and
Wellbeing, from Manchester Metropolitan University. Since 2018, Mischa
has written and published work on Addiction, Mental Health, Depression, and Eating Disorders. Content reviewed by Laura Morris (Clinical Lead).

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Last Updated: February 24, 2026