KEY TAKEAWAYS
Gambling addiction:
How Does Variable Reinforcement Cause Gambling Addiction?
Variable reinforcement, where slot machines pay out unexpectedly after an unpredictable number of plays, make rewards seem rare yet achievable.
Linnet (2013) found that gamblers experience a 9-fold decrease in dopamine binding potential compared to healthy controls during a win, indicating a higher release of dopamine [1].
Wins in pathological gambling result in a 13.9% decrease in dopamine binding in the ventral striatum, 5.8% lower than in controls, caused by dopamine receptors being fully occupied [2].
When gamblers win, positive reinforcement of the reward encourages the same behaviours (e.g., betting on a sports game), therefore driving the cycle of gambling addiction despite future losses.
Zald et al. (2004) report increases of dopamine during variable reinforcement gambling [3]:
The left lateral putamen shows the highest increase in dopaminergic activity (8.7%) compared to the left medial caudate (6.3%) during variable reinforcement, indicating a significant role in subsequent compulsive gambling [3].
Behavioural Signs Of Gambling Addiction
Gambling More Than Intended
Gambling more than intended is a behavioural sign of problematic gambling because it demonstrates an inability to stop despite vast financial losses, resulting in a lack of control and continued reward-seeking behaviour.
Compared to recreational gamblers, those with pathological gambling surpass frequency and financial limits (e.g. playing the lottery once a month or a £10/month limit), regardless of attempts to make limits.
One behavioural marker of problem gambling is resetting or stopping limits altogether on in-app or online gambling sites, intending to increase spending.
Reasons for gambling more than intended are:
Goldstein et al. (2023) found that in cases where limits are set and then violated, riskier gambling sessions occur (e.g. betting more money or choosing to play in more games with lower odds of winning) [4].
Chasing Losses
Chasing losses is a behavioural sign of gambling dependence because it indicates users' beliefs that a potential win is imminent, without considering the logic that odds are low (e.g. one-in-5000 plays on a slot machine result in a win) [5].
Of the 83.5% who initially set a stop loss, 14.9% state that gambling sometimes continues after this limit has been reached, 2.6% state that gambling mostly occurs after the limit is reached, and 2.2% state that gambling always occurs after this limit is reached [6].
Approximately 80% of pathological gamblers continue to gamble despite having won, due to the irrational belief that wins will recur [7].
40% of pathological gamblers state playing after some form of stop loss limit is reached, indicating addiction, as there is a need to continue playing in an attempt to win back money [8].
Campbell-Meiklejohn et al. (2008) found that 73% choose to chase a loss in a gambling session, further adding to the cycle of addiction as a win is never guaranteed [9].
Pathological gamblers report a 28.5% increased likelihood of continued gambling when a loss is made compared to a win, contributing to the gambler's fallacy, or the belief that a win is more likely to occur after a loss [10].
Lying About Gambling
Lying about gambling is a behavioural sign of escalating gambling dependence because it demonstrates users feel embarrassed about the extent of gambling and how much money has been lost as a result.
One way a pathological gambler may conceal the extent of gambling is through lying about savings or financial situation (e.g. fabricating savings accounts even when the user is in debt).
Fulton (2022) reports that self-concealment in gambling dependence is a negative cycle driven by deception and manipulation, perpetuating the idea of shame and social stigma surrounding dependence [11].
Deception may also occur in gambling dependence if users lie to obtain money to gamble, often resulting in disagreements or criminal court cases when this money cannot be returned [12].
Self-deception is the fundamental driver of gambling dependence because it enables users to believe that large amounts of money will be won and any losses will be recovered; however, statistics indicate that the odds of winning are as low as one in 34 million [13].
Emotional Signs Of Gambling Addiction
Mood Swings
Mood swings, such as angry outbursts, are an emotional indicator of gambling dependence because these can reflect a significant monetary loss even when this isn't voiced to friends or family members.
Evidence demonstrates that mood disorders are significantly more common in the pathological gambling population compared to non-gamblers [14]:
There is a 24% rate of co-occurring bipolar disorder with pathological gambling, indicating an overlap in mood disorders and gambling [15].
Continued anger, upset, and frustration may indicate severe financial hardship caused by addiction (e.g. credit card debt) that only continues to worsen as addiction progresses.
Conversely, random outbursts of joy or happiness with no known cause could indicate a significant win through gambling.
The persistent cycle of upward and downward mood swings is typical in gambling dependence, as current emotions are tied to wins and losses, resulting in unpredictable moods.
Obsessive Thinking
Obsessive thinking is an emotional sign of gambling dependence, indicating that gambling is no longer a choice but an ongoing dependence progressing into having obsessive thoughts when not actively gambling.
11% of pathological gamblers have co-occurring addictions, demonstrating that compulsive thinking patterns may have been learnt from a previous addiction (or vice versa). [16].
Compared to recreational gamblers, those with problem gambling present with heuristics, or a well-thought-through explanation of a loss, hindsight bias, and personification of the gambling platform [17].
Gambling motives and thinking of future gambling sessions predict 34.8% of cognitive distortions surrounding gambling (e.g. the belief that gambling outcomes can be controlled) [18].
Problem gambling (e.g. gambling more than intended or gambling past a stop loss) predicts further obsessive thinking by 22.4%, indicating that obsessive thoughts and gambling perpetuate one another [18].
Financial Signs Of Gambling Addiction
Inconsistent Finances
Unreliable finances are a financial sign of gambling dependence because cash flow does not remain stable, particularly during expensive, impulsive bets.
Debt occurs in 14.8% of problem gamblers and 28.1% in those with clinically diagnosed gambling, indicating that the higher the severity of gambling the higher the accumulated debt [19].
Financial motivation explains 17% of all gambling activity in pathological gamblers, whether it be motivation for instant financial gain or winning back money lost from previous bets [20].
When gambling dependence is not managed, it can result in bankruptcy in 5-22% of cases [21].
The average onset age for starting gambling that leads to addiction is 20, typically an age where financial responsibility and stability is being developed [22].
Selling Possessions
Selling possessions to fund gambling is a financial sign of gambling dependence, as it shows prioritising dependence and that all other sources of income no longer support gambling habits.
16.2% of pathological gamblers state that personal items (e.g. electronics) have been sold to support gambling expenses [23].
There is a 6-fold increased rate of clinical gambling diagnoses when personal items have been sold unexpectedly, indicating this is a visible sign to others that gambling is taking place [24].
21.4% of gamblers have co-occurring ADHD with traits of impulsivity and engaging in risky behaviours, resulting in selling belongings without analysing the consequences [24].
Items sold to fund dependence spending habits are typically sentimental and high value (e.g. an expensive family heirloom), indicating emotional attachment to objects is ignored when money is needed to gamble.
Selling belongings to fund gambling dependence indicates vast financial difficulties and might suggest that debt has or is about to occur, especially when more money is being gambled than earned.
When larger necessary items are sold (e.g. cars or laptops), this may impede on the ability to go to work and earn a stable income as the pathological gambler is not thinking rationally.
Who Is More Likely To Develop A Gambling Addiction?
Demographic | Why? |
|---|---|
Early exposure to gambling addiction/other addictions | |
Men aged between 18-34 | Susceptible to: |
Co-occurring mental health disorders | |
Co-occurring substance use disorders | |
Co-occurring online gaming addiction |
Myths About Gambling Addiction
You Have To Gamble Every Day To Be A Gambling Addict
26.4% of pathological gamblers state that betting occurs weekly, meaning that betting does not need to occur every day for dependence to be present [26].
Although betting does not necessarily occur daily, 3% state that wagering intensity increases on days when losses are chased [27].
The rate of entering into daily wagering to chase back losses is 81%, although this number fluctuates depending on available finances, wins and losses, and platforms available [28].
6.1% state that when supplied with bonuses, these are used again on wagering, indicating that risk-taking stakes depend on finances available [29].
Binge-like wagering also occurs when larger wagers are planned on games with higher potential outcomes (e.g. waiting for the rollover on the EuroMillions or wagering on a favourite sports game).
If You Can Afford To Gamble, You Don't Have A Gambling Addiction
Having sufficient funds to maintain a gambling dependence, meaning the gambler is not addicted, is a myth because dependence involves compulsive wagering regardless of financial gain and status.
Although wealth cannot prevent gambling disorder, it can mask the severity of gambling dependence, as there will be no signs of financial hardship or stress due to losses when wagering.
Transactions may also be hidden from family members by creating new bank accounts primarily used for wagering, so other shared account holders do not see its impact.
Canale et al. (2017) found differences in wagering behaviour between low and high-income populations, with a maximum of 71% increased rate of wagering between low and high-income populations [30].
Depending on individual income, wager size increases may not be noticeable due to earnings from work or other sources of income, meaning that financial signs of wagering may go unobserved.
Being able to afford increasing wagers without it affecting overall wealth (i.e. due to high expendable income) is used to deny the presence of dependence.
If A Gambler Keeps Playing, They’ll Eventually Win Back Their Losses
Gambler's fallacy, meaning the gambler is not addicted, is a myth because this is a cognitive distortion where users believe a win is imminent after one or several losses.
Wagers are always made independently, meaning that previous wagers do not increase the probability of winning in the future, resulting in cumulative losses.
When choosing to win back an initial loss (e.g. £5) with a double wager (e.g. £10), this results in an exponential growth in compound losses:
Regardless of how many wagers have been placed and the value of those wagers, the probability of winning remains the same in most cases (e.g. 1 in 5000), resulting in extensive losses when these are chased.
The gambler's fallacy enables pathological gamblers to maintain the illusion of control, leading to belief that by continuing to wager, all losses will be recouped and a win will ultimately yield profits, although this is not the case.
Psychological Associations Changing Gambling Addiction
Casinos And Betting Shops
Casinos are typically designed to be overstimulating and have the following to alter time perception:
The availability of alcoholic drinks served in some game houses also impairs judgement of time and encourages risk-taking behaviour when intoxicated, enabling wagering to continue past limits.
Repeatedly attending game houses (e.g. once a day) enables users to habituate wagering as part of daily routine, normalising the process regardless of the money spent.
Attending game houses and wagering shops is also viewed as a social gathering, making this population susceptible to peer influence regarding wagering [31].
Philander et al. (2022) state that the risk of problematic wagering increases when wagering establishments are in close proximity to the gambler, making it an accessible form of wagering [32].
Online Gambling
The National Lottery and other wagering services available on smartphones drive dependence by providing 24/7 accessibility from anywhere, via Wi-Fi or data, regardless of time zone.
A series of measures is put in place to ensure safer playing by the National Lottery:
The stop limits (e.g. £500) per week are often too high for the average income (£37,430), resulting in a take-home pay (minus wagering) of £529 per month and subsequent financial hardship [33].
Intrinsic motivation is typically required to set limits on in-app wagering; however, for compulsive gamblers, these limits are often overlooked due to the frequency of play in pursuit of a potential reward.
Though these measures are in place, 24/7 access to lottery and betting apps results in instant access and wagering, causing pathological gamblers to act as soon as the urge is felt, further driving dependence on multiple occasions.
Where a recreational gambler may play the lottery once a month or stake on a favourite sport, pathological gamblers play frequently, up to multiple times a day (5+), though this varies on a case-by-case basis.
Push notifications trigger compulsive stake-taking through reminders of ways to play and win and current deals (e.g. "receive 5 more plays for only £1"), reinforcing habitual stake-setting even when these sessions are unplanned.
