Amphetamine Rehab - Abbeycare

Home
Amphetamine
Amphetamine Rehab

Jump To:

Heading 2 Example

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Rehab for amphetamines is:

Symptom managed detox using SSRI's, antihistamines, and NSAID's as required
Aiming to increase dopamine by 27.3% (after 4 years of amphetamine abuse) [1]
Providing CBT to aim to reduce cravings and depression by 58-76% [2]
Providing ongoing co-ordinated care with psychiatrists, GPs, and social services to aid recovery [3]

When Is Amphetamine Rehabilitation Necessary?

Psychological Addiction

Psychological addiction to amphetamines means rehab is necessary as 56% are reliant on the drug to relieve anxiety, and the frequency of psychological cravings is 42% higher compared to non-anxious users [3]:

Weekly CBT sessions provide education about engaging in ‘low-risk’ activities (e.g. deep breathing) rather than ‘high-risk’ activities (e.g. consuming 1.5g amphetamines daily) to alleviate fears of being scrutinised in social situations
SSRIs (e.g. Citalopram) or beta-blockers (e.g. Propranolol) are provided alongside therapy to manage anxiety and low mood caused by disrupted neurotransmission in the central nervous system after chronic amphetamine misuse (>12 months)
Daily monitoring and mental status examinations take place using the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) to mitigate the 210% increased risk of suicidal behaviour in users with anxiety [4]

Amphetamine rehabilitation addresses psychological addiction by identifying and treating the underlying cause because 16 – 23% relapse within 3 months after struggling with anxiety or depression [5].

Prolonged Cravings

Prolonged cravings mean amphetamine rehabilitation is necessary as 68% experience cravings within 72 hours of withdrawal, lasting up to 5 weeks with detox alone, and for every one-point increase in craving scores the risk of amphetamine use increases by 0.38% [6][7].

The probability of amphetamine use decreases by 2.45% for every week of rehab treatment completed because physical and psychological dependence can be addressed with [7]:

150mg Bupropion (sustained release) twice daily to inhibit the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine alongside weekly CBT to reduce amphetamine cravings by 67% within 12 weeks [2]
A minimum of 20 minutes of exercise daily (e.g. cycling, walking) to reduce cravings by up to 72% within 50 minutes of physical activity after previously consuming methamphetamine 3 - 4 days per week for around 6 years [8]
50mg oral Hydroxyzine daily for 10 days and weekly CBT focused on identifying triggers, developing problem-solving skills, and enhancing self-efficacy to manage mood disturbances and reduce cravings by 53% within 40 days [9]

Cognitive Impairment

Cognitive impairment means rehab is necessary as cortical grey matter is reduced by 4.2% in the frontal lobe after daily amphetamine misuse, resulting in a 16 – 30% reduction in attention/psychomotor speed and learning/memory abilities (e.g. delayed recall)[10][11]:

Weekly integrated CBT with mindfulness exercises, trigger analysis, and psychoeducation improves cognitive function (e.g. speed/accuracy of memory retrieval) by 11 – 16% within 6 months [12]
Some rehabs provide daily 30-minute cognitive training sessions to reduce response times by 36.2% using the Trail Making Test to enhance working memory abilities (e.g. processing speed, executive function) after 10 years of drug use [13]
Some rehabs provide 60 minutes of weekly Tai Chi exercise training to reduce attention bias by up to 87% by integrating mindful breathing and movement to reverse cognitive impairments caused by 8 years of amphetamine misuse [14]

Aggression And Emotional Instability

The 83% increased risk of physical aggression after 7 years of amphetamine abuse means rehabilitation is necessary because up to 51% also experience psychotic symptoms (e.g. hallucinations), increasing the odds of violent behaviour (e.g. assault, property damage) by 2-fold [15][16].

Some amphetamine rehabilitation programmes incorporate anger management training into weekly therapy to reduce physical and verbal aggression, anger, and hostility by 13 – 26% after helping patients to [17]:

Identify physical, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural cues that lead to anger (e.g. hearing a hurtful comment = hostile self-talk + frustration = raised voice + clenched fists)
Develop personal anger control plans using timeouts, thought-stopping, deep-breathing exercises, and progressive muscle relaxation
Engage in cognitive restructuring and assertiveness training using the ABCD and Conflict Resolution Models to appropriately respond to conflict (e.g. having a calm conversation) [18]

Amphetamine rehabilitation adopts the AGRO+ method to deescalate aggressive behaviour whilst minimising rapid movements during observations and providing quiet rooms with moderate lighting to encourage calmness and feelings of safety:

Assess: A patient-centred approach is used to calmly discuss triggers of agitation
Guage: Clinicians attempt to understand the situation whilst being mindful about using language that may escalate the situation
Respond: Clinicians stand at a safe distance in an open posture whilst reflectively listening and asking open-ended questions
Observe: Verbal and nonverbal cues are assessed (e.g. body language, facial expressions) to evaluate whether the de-escalation techniques are working
Positive Reinforcement: As de-escalation occurs, the behaviour is positively reinforced by the clinician offering a glass of water or a snack [19]

Amphetamine Rehabilitation Process

Detox

Amphetamine detox is done by managing withdrawal symptoms (e.g. Anhedonia, bruxism, compulsive skin picking) with SSRIs, antihistamines, and NSAIDs as needed during a 28-day inpatient rehabilitation programme.

Rehab

Addressing Depression, Irritability And Apathy

Therapy during amphetamine rehabilitation addresses depression, irritability, and apathy experienced by 19 – 38% of patients during the first 2 weeks of treatment by developing coping skills, practising mindfulness (e.g. deep breathing), building self-esteem and emotional resilience to [6]:

Reduce depression by 53% within 6 months of receiving weekly psychotherapy during a 90-day programme for chronic methamphetamine abuse (20 uses per month for 11 years) [12]
Reduce irritability by up to 39% within 12 months of receiving weekly Dialectical Behavior Therapy and 90-minute skills training sessions focused on problem-solving, behavioural rehearsal, and feedback [20]
Reduce apathy (e.g. loss of interest in activity, listlessness, indecision, and vacillation) by 44% within 5 months of receiving weekly 60-minute integrated CBT with motivational interviewing, mindfulness practice, and harm reduction [21]

Depression, irritability, and apathy are likely to be exacerbated in 35% of amphetamine rehabilitation patients with comorbid depressive, anxiety or psychotic disorders, potentially requiring SSRIs (e.g. citalopram) or antipsychotics (e.g. Quetiapine) alongside therapy to aid emotion regulation [12].

Dopamine-Enhancing Activities

Amphetamine rehabilitation encourages 1 hour of aerobic exercise (e.g. walking, running) or strength training (e.g. using weights or resistance bands) per day to increase dopamine expression by 27.3% and reduce anxiety, depression, and psychotic symptoms (e.g. hallucinations) by 43.2% [1].

Amphetamine rehabilitation provides 25-minute sessions of music and sound therapy using headphones or earbuds in a darkened or dim, quiet room to reduce cravings, anxiety, and depression by up to 65% within 30 days after activating dopaminergic pathways in the mesolimbic reward circuitry [22].

Amphetamine rehabilitation delivers 60 – 120 minutes of weekly guided mindfulness and meditation (e.g. deep breathing, body scan) to increase extracellular dopamine release in the ventral striatum by 65%, resulting in a 32.8% reduction in cravings within 1 month of cessation [23][24].

Sleep Hygiene Plans

Amphetamine rehabilitation addresses circadian rhythm disruptions caused by a 7 - 9% reduction in D2 receptor availability in the caudate and putamen regions after chronic amphetamine misuse (1g daily for >12 months) by [25]:

Educating patients about sleep hygiene practices, including daily physical exercise, taking short naps before 5 p.m., practising relaxation techniques when unable to fall asleep within 20 minutes, and attempting to wake and sleep at similar times each night
Determining whether insomnia is present during treatment (e.g. 2 – 3 nights of sleep disturbances per week for >1 month) and administering 7.5mg zopiclone before bed whilst patients engage in a relaxing presleep routine (e.g. a warm bath, imagery) [26]

Zhu et al (2018) found that 74% were abstinent and sleep disturbances (e.g. night terrors, difficulties falling asleep) decreased by 24% within 6 months of engaging in sleep hygiene practices (e.g. daily exercise, reading) during amphetamine addiction treatment [27].

Some amphetamine treatment facilities provide weekly 30 – 60-minute acupuncture sessions alongside CBT to enhance sleep quality (-4.10 decrease in PSQI scores) and aid recovery, resulting in 71.4% being amphetamine-free after 2 months [28].

Aftercare Planning

Abbeycare offers 12-18 months of aftercare, dependent on programme length.

Long-Term Supports

Aftercare planning in rehab for amphetamine addiction includes up to 4 years of post-treatment support (e.g. harm reduction, weekly telephone monitoring, linkage assistance), rather than the standard 6 – 12 months, to address the 77% 5-year relapse rate by [29]:

Encouraging ongoing attendance at weekly mutual-help meetings (e.g. Crystal Meth Anonymous) to increase the likelihood of continued abstinence by 26% after engaging in 12-step work and drug-free activities whilst having a sponsor [30]
Liaising with housing/financial services to organise funding and long-term stays in sober living environments to increase the odds of ongoing sobriety by 377% after treatment [30]
Providing weekly continuing care group meetings (or as often as needed) in an outpatient setting to increase the chances of abstinence by 19% after receiving at least 90 days of psychoeducation, family counselling, and regular drug tests [19][30]
Offering motivational interviewing with personalised feedback to strengthen intrinsic (e.g. personally rewarding) motivation because higher levels of recovery motivation increase the likelihood of long-term abstinence by 11% [30]

Liaising With Psychiatric Care

Amphetamine rehabilitation centres liaise with psychiatric care during aftercare planning to address anxiety disorders (e.g. Social Anxiety Disorder, Post-traumatic stress disorder) present in 26.2% 3 years post-treatment by [4]:

Referring patients to mental health services (e.g. CAMHS) to receive 4 – 16 hours of psychiatrist contact per week to mitigate the 210% increased risk of post-treatment suicide attempts by monitoring thoughts of self-harm and developing individualised safety plans (e.g. removing access to lethal means) [4][31]
Coordinating care with primary care providers (e.g. GPs) to prescribe anti-anxiety medication (e.g. propranolol, citalopram) and conduct monthly evaluations to mitigate the 80% increased risk of psychiatric hospitalisation post-discharge [4]
Working with licensed clinical social workers to contact patients daily via text or email for reminders about upcoming appointments, inquiries about medication adherence, and crisis management to reduce the 80 – 120% risk of anxiety-induced relapse [4]

Rebuilding Routines And Goal Setting

Aftercare planning in amphetamine rehabilitation includes rebuilding routines and goal setting to address the 20% reduction in everyday functioning (e.g. communication, household skills, medication management) after 10 years of drug abuse by [32]:

Collaboratively developing individual-specific plans to provide structure and stability whilst encouraging behaviour change and drug-free living to replace a lifestyle dominated by seeking, using, and recuperating from amphetamines
Setting short-term goals using the SMART approach (e.g. attend 90 meetings in 90 days) with regular counselling for clinicians to review goals and make recommendations for the upcoming week [19]
Establishing daily schedules to avoid spending extended periods alone without planned activities (e.g. healthy breakfast, 1-hour of exercise, medical appointment, 12-step meeting) [19]

Some treatment facilities use contingency management to positively reinforce patients who achieve recovery goals (e.g. complete abstinence from amphetamines for 1 week) with up to £15 for every negative urine test submitted, increasing the odds of 12-month abstinence by 2-fold [33].

Rehab for Amphetamine Vs Other Settings

	Inpatient Rehab	Outpatient Rehab
Full Treatment Programme?	Yes	No
Purpose Of Treatment	To safely detox in a controlled environment To develop coping skills + enhance dopamine To maintain sobriety whilst re-entering into society	To support patients through onsite or home detox Harm reduction and building sober support networks
Detox?	Yes	Yes
Structure And Routine	7 - 14 day detox CBT, exercise, mindfulness, cognitive training Aftercare with up to 4 years of check-ups	Up to 12 hours of contact p/wk to monitor withdrawal 1-2 therapy sessions weekly 1-year aftercare
Relapse Management?	Yes	Yes
Duration	4 - 12 weeks	Up to 24 weeks
Public Or Private Treatment?	Both	Public

	Private Counselling	Mutual Aid Groups
Full Treatment Programme?	No	No
Purpose Of Treatment	To identify triggers and develop coping strategies Building self-esteem whilst managing stress and low mood	To provide a sense of community To help patients stay motivated and accountable during recovery
Detox?	No	No
Structure And Routine	1-1 weekly counselling Typically uses a CBT or motivational approach Session content tailored to individual needs	Daily or weekly in-person or online meetings with peer-led discussions about: Mental + physical impacts of previous drug abuse Recovery experiences/tips
Relapse Management?	Yes	Yes
Duration	12 weeks	Ongoing
Public Or Private Treatment?	Private	Public

How Does ADHD Change Amphetamine Rehabilitation?

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder changes amphetamine recovery due to poor impulse control, higher 6-month relapse rates (47% vs 26%), and increased depression and anxiety (93% vs 73%) compared to patients without the condition [27][34]:

Screening tools such as ASRS-V1.1 or WURS-25 are required to distinguish whether presenting symptoms (e.g. emotional dysregulation, restlessness) are caused by a neurodevelopmental disorder or amphetamine misuse by focusing on the patient’s childhood recollections
Patients previously taking prescribed stimulants (e.g. 20 – 70mg Lisdexamfetamine) may require non-stimulant medications (e.g. 40 - 120mg atomoxetine) to inhibit the reuptake of norepinephrine and manage impulsivity, hyperactivity, and inattention during treatment [19]
Intensive group therapy sessions are reduced from 3 hours to 60 minutes and 30-minute individual sessions are prioritised to minimise forgetfulness, distractions, fidgeting, and unintentional interruptions [31]
CBT is adapted to treat both conditions simultaneously by managing distractibility, cravings, and mood disturbances whilst focusing on relapse prevention techniques and enhancing motivation to reduce hyperactive and inattentive symptoms by 20% within 2 months [35]

Some amphetamine recovery centres allow patients with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and severe functioning impairments to continue taking prescribed stimulant medication whilst receiving psychotherapy, although ongoing monitoring and diversion prevention techniques are implemented by:

Administering long-acting (8 – 14 hours) rather than short-acting (4 – 6 hours) formulations due to lower abuse potential
Using medication contracts written by physicians for patients to adhere to a specific treatment plan (e.g. 30mg long-acting lisdexamfetamine once every morning with food)
Educating patients about the benefits and risks of stimulant medication and offering printed materials about substance abuse and diversion to encourage ongoing dialogue during treatment [19]

Abbeycare's treatment for amphetamine addiction addresses Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder on a case-by-case basis due to the different types (e.g. inattentive and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity) and severities (e.g. marked impairment in social or occupational functioning) of the condition.

How Does Being An Athlete Change Amphetamine Rehabilitation?

Being an athlete changes amphetamine addiction treatment because:

19.6% have co-occurring anabolic steroid addictions and may experience additional withdrawal symptoms during days 1 – 2 (e.g. headaches, nausea), requiring education about the risks of steroid and amphetamine misuse and treatment for hair loss, acne, and dysuria in some cases [36]
Up to 25% suffer from body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), requiring REBT with ABC-based psychoeducation to reduce drug cravings by 40.44%, irrational beliefs by 31%, and BDD behaviours (e.g. repeated mirror checking) by 35% within 6 months [12][37][38]

Amphetamine rehabilitation changes for 38% of patients who excessively exercise (6 days per week for 2 years) whilst using amphetamines to attract attention, gain a higher social level, and enhance self-esteem because [36]:

Integrated CBT is adapted to focus on modifying egosyntonic and perfectionistic beliefs alongside coping skills and relapse prevention to increase self-confidence by up to 50% within 24 weeks of treatment [38]
45 minutes of weekly problem-solving training with harm minimisation techniques and mindfulness practice is required to reduce dysfunctional attitudes (e.g. impression management, the need to succeed, please others, and gain approval) by 13% within 10 weeks [21]
Clinicians work with patients to develop less-intensive exercise regimes (e.g. 20 minutes of walking vs 1 hour of heavy weight training daily) to minimise stress and aid recovery, rather than focusing on exercise to achieve/maintain a certain physique

Amphetamine Rehabilitation At Abbeycare

Amphetamine rehabilitation at Abbeycare is a 4-week programme that comprises of:

Symptom managed detoxification using SSRI's, antihistamines and NSAID's as appropriate
CBT to address depression, irritability and apathy in amphetamine users
Daily exercise and morning mindfulness sessions to increase dopamine
Ongoing post-treatment support and liaison with community services

References

[1] He, Qinghua, et al. “Exercise Intervention Can Reduce the Degree of Drug Dependence of Patients with Amphetamines Addiction by Improving Dopamine Level and Immunity and Reducing Negative Emotions.” Am J Transl Res, vol. 13, no. 3, Mar. 2021, pp. 1779–88. Accessed 17 Mar. 2025.“Table 4.”
[2] Shoptaw, Steven, et al. “Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial of Bupropion for the Treatment of Methamphetamine Dependence.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol. 96, no. 3, Aug. 2008, pp. 222–32. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.“Table 2.”
[3] Cetin Turan et al. “The Relationship between Social Anxiety and Anxiety Sensitivity in Young Adults with Methamphetamine Use Disorder.” Genel Tıp Derg, vol. 33, no. 5, Aug. 2023, pp. 569–75. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.“ 56.4% of the sample group stated that the reason for substance use was to relieve anxiety and boredom, 11.9% stated that it was to increase self-confidence.”
[4] Glasner-Edwards, Suzette, et al. “Anxiety Disorders among Methamphetamine Dependent Adults: Association with Post-Treatment Functioning.” The American Journal on Addictions, vol. 19, no. 5, July 2010, pp. 385–90. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.“Those with an anxiety disorder had more than triple the odds of having attempted suicide once or more in their lifetime (OR=3.1, 95% C.I., 2.1–4.7).”
[5] Mu, Lin-Lin, et al. “Associations of Executive Function and Age of First Use of Methamphetamine with Methamphetamine Relapse.” Frontiers in Psychiatry, vol. 13, Oct. 2022. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.“Table 4.”
[6] Zorick, Todd, et al. “Withdrawal Symptoms in Abstinent Methamphetamine-Dependent Subjects.” Addiction, vol. 105, no. 10, Sept. 2010, pp. 1809–18. Accessed 11 Mar. 2025.“Table 2.”
[7] Galloway, Gantt P., et al. “How Long Does Craving Predict Use of Methamphetamine? Assessment of Use One to Seven Weeks after the Assessment of Craving.” Substance Abuse, vol. 1, SAGE Publishing, Jan. 2008. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.“For the average participant, the probability of ongoing methamphetamine use increased by 0.38% for each one-point increase in craving score (0–100).”
[8] Wang, Dongshi, et al. “Dose-Response Relationships between Exercise Intensity, Cravings, and Inhibitory Control in Methamphetamine Dependence: An ERPs Study.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol. 161, Elsevier BV, Apr. 2016, pp. 331–39. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.“The reduction in craving associated with moderate and vigorous exercise occurred during exercise (46%and 43%, respectively), but an even larger reduction was observed immediately after (58% and 77%, respectively) and 50 min after exercise cessation (71% and 72%, respectively).”
[9] Ling, Walter, et al. “Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Evaluation of the PROMETATM Protocol for Methamphetamine Dependence.” Addiction, vol. 107, no. 2, Nov. 2011, pp. 361–69. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.“Table 1 - 2.”
[10] Nakama, Helenna, et al. “Methamphetamine Users Show Greater than Normal Age-Related Cortical Gray Matter Loss.” Addiction, vol. 106, no. 8, May 2011, pp. 1474–83. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.“Table 2.”
[11] Kalechstein, Ari D., et al. “Methamphetamine Dependence Is Associated with Neurocognitive Impairment in the Initial Phases of Abstinence.” The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, vol. 15, no. 2, May 2003, pp. 215–20. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.“Table 2.”
[12] Behle, Nina, et al. “Treatment Outcome, Cognitive Function, and Psychopathology in Methamphetamine Users Compared to Other Substance Users.” World Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 12, no. 7, July 2022, pp. 944–57. Accessed 14 Mar. 2025.“Table 6.”
[13] Brooks, Samantha J., et al. “The Impact of Cognitive Training in Substance Use Disorder: The Effect of Working Memory Training on Impulse Control in Methamphetamine Users.” Psychopharmacology, vol. 234, no. 12, Mar. 2017, pp. 1911–21. Accessed 14 Mar. 2025.“Table 2.”
[14] Zhang, Ling, et al. “Effect of Tai Chi Compared to Running on Drug Cravings, Attention Bias, and Physical Fitness in Men with Methamphetamine Use Disorder.” Healthcare, vol. 12, no. 16, MDPI AG, Aug. 2024, p. 1653. Accessed 14 Mar. 2025.“Table 2.”
[15] Liu, Mengqi, et al. “Correlates of Aggression in Men with Methamphetamine Use Disorder: Childhood Trauma and Methamphetamine-Use Characteristics.” Frontiers of Psychiatry, vol. 13, May 2022. Accessed 14 Mar. 2025.“Table 1.”
[16] McKetin, Rebecca, et al. “Does Methamphetamine Use Increase Violent Behaviour? Evidence from a Prospective Longitudinal Study.” Addiction, vol. 109, no. 5, Feb. 2014, pp. 798–806. Accessed 14 Mar. 2025.“The odds of violent behaviour were further increased by psychotic symptoms (OR = 2.0, 95% CI = 1.1–3.6), which accounted for 22–30% of violent behaviour related to methamphetamine use.”
[17] Ghouchani, Shaahin, et al. “Effectiveness of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) on Aggression of Patients with Psychosis due to Methamphetamine Use: A Pilot Study.” Journal of Substance Use, vol. 23, no. 4, Feb. 2018, pp. 402–7. Accessed 14 Mar. 2025.“Table 6.”
[18] Reilly et al. Anger Management for Substance Use Disorder and Mental Health Clients: Participant Workbook. 2019. Accessed 14 Mar. 2025.“A simple way to monitor your anger is to use a 1-to-10 scale called the anger meter. A score of 1 on the anger meter represents a complete lack of anger or a total state of calm, whereas 10 represents an angry and explosive loss of control that leads to negative consequences.”
[19] SAMHSA. Treatment for Stimulant Use Disorders TREATMENT IMPROVEMENT PROTOCOL TIP 33. 2021. Accessed 13 March. 2025.“Exhibit 3.8.”
[20] Dimeff, Linda, et al. “Dialectical Behavior Therapy for Substance Abuse: A Pilot Application to Methamphetamine-dependent Women with Borderline Personality Disorder.” Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, vol. 7, no. 4, Sept. 2000, pp. 457–68. Accessed 14 Mar. 2025.“Table 3.”
[21] Hides, Leanne, et al. “Outcomes of an Integrated Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) Treatment Program for Co-occurring Depression and Substance Misuse in Young People.” Journal of Affective Disorders, vol. 121, no. 1-2, Feb. 2010, pp. 169–74. Accessed 14 March. 2025.“Table 2.”
[22] Morse, Siobhan. “Audio Therapy Significantly Attenuates Aberrant Mood in Residential Patient Addiction Treatment: Putative Activation of Dopaminergic Pathways in the Meso-Limbic Reward Circuitry of Humans.” Journal of Addiction Research & Therapy, vol. 04, no. 02, 2013. Accessed 14 Mar. 2025.“Table 3.”
[23] Kjaer, Troels W., et al. “Increased Dopamine Tone during Meditation-Induced Change of Consciousness.” Cognitive Brain Research, vol. 13, no. 2, Apr. 2002, pp. 255–59. Accessed 17 Mar. 2025.“Present results would indicate a rise by approximately 65% of extracellular dopamine release during meditation in the ventral striatum.”
[24] Alizadehgoradel, Jaber, et al. “Improved Executive Functions and Reduced Craving in Youths with Methamphetamine Addiction: Evidence from Combined Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation with Mindfulness Treatment.” Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience, vol. 19, no. 4, Nov. 2021, pp. 653–68. Accessed 17 Mar. 2025.“Table 4.”
[25] Wang, G. J., et al. “Decreased Dopamine Activity Predicts Relapse in Methamphetamine Abusers.” Molecular Psychiatry, vol. 17, no. 9, Sept. 2012, pp. 918–25. Accessed 17 Mar. 2025.“Table 1 - 2 .”
[26] Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Treating Sleep Problems of People in Recovery from Substance Use Disorders. 2014. Accessed 17 Mar. 2025 “Exhibit 2.”
[27] Zhu, Dong, et al. “Long-Term Effects of Tai Chi Intervention on Sleep and Mental Health of Female Individuals with Dependence on Amphetamine-Type Stimulants.” Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 9, Aug. 2018. Accessed 17 Mar. 2025.“Table 4.”
[28] Shiao, Yi-Hsien, et al. “Positive Effects of Laser Acupuncture in Methamphetamine Users Undergoing Group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: A Pilot Study.” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, edited by Juntra Karbwang, vol. 2021, May 2021, pp. 1–8. Accessed 17 Mar. 2025.“Urinalysis for MA revealed a decrease in drug use from 57.1% to 28.6%, ... PSQI scores were significantly lower at 1 and 2 months after treatment (−3.73 and −4.10, respectively).”
[29] Brecht, Mary-Lynn, and Diane Herbeck. “Time to Relapse Following Treatment for Methamphetamine Use: A Long-Term Perspective on Patterns and Predictors.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol. 139, June 2014, pp. 18–25. Accessed 17 Mar. 2025.“77% of the sample had relapsed to MA use within their observed follow-up period, ... Focusing on the subset (n=206) with follow-up periods of 60 or more months, participants averaged 44 months of abstinence (not necessarily continuous) in the 60- month period..”
[30] Bergman, Brandon G., et al. “The Effects of Continuing Care on Emerging Adult Outcomes Following Residential Addiction Treatment.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol. 153, Aug. 2015, pp. 207–14. Accessed 17 Mar. 2025.“Table 2.”
[31] SAMHSA. Substance Use Disorder Treatment for People with Co-Occurring Disorders UPDATED 2020 TREATMENT IMPROVEMENT PROTOCOL TIP 42. 2020. Accessed 18 March .2025.“Hire a psychiatrist part-time, even 4 to 16 hours per week, and that a significant number of clients can be seen that way.”
[32] Henry, Brook L., et al. “Effect of Methamphetamine Dependence on Everyday Functional Ability.” Addictive Behaviors, vol. 35, no. 6, June 2010, pp. 593–98. Accessed 18 Mar. 2025.“Table 2.”
[33] Roll, John M., et al. “Duration Effects in Contingency Management Treatment of Methamphetamine Disorders.” Addictive Behaviors, vol. 38, no. 9, Sept. 2013, pp. 2455–62. Accessed 18 Mar. 2025.“Table 5.”
[34] Bihlar Muld, Berit, et al. “Long-Term Outcomes of Pharmacologically Treated versus Non-Treated Adults with ADHD and Substance Use Disorder: A Naturalistic Study.” Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, vol. 51, Apr. 2015, pp. 82–90. Accessed 19 Mar. 2025.“Table 3.”
[35] van Emmerik-van Oortmerssen, Katelijne, et al. “Integrated Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for ADHD in Adult Substance Use Disorder Patients: Results of a Randomized Clinical Trial.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol. 197, Apr. 2019, pp. 28–36. Accessed 19 Mar. 2025.“Table 5.”
[36] Angoorani, Hooman, et al. “Amphetamine Use and Its Associated Factors in Body Builders: A Study from Tehran, Iran.” Archives of Medical Science, vol. 2, May 2012, pp. 362–67. Accessed 19 Mar. 2025.“Table 1.”
[37] Kanayama, Gen, et al. “Features of Men with Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Dependence: A Comparison with Nondependent AAS Users and with AAS Nonusers.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol. 102, no. 1-3, June 2009, pp. 130–37. Accessed 19 Mar. 2025.“Table 3.”
[38] L Outar et al. “Muscularity Rationality: An Examination of the Use of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) upon Exercisers at Risk of Muscle Dysmorphia.” Psychology of Sport and Exercise, vol. 52, Jan. 2021. Accessed 19 Mar. 2025.“Table 1.”

About the author

Mischa Ezekpo

Mischa Ezekpo has a Bachelors degree in Psychology from Northumbria
University, and a Masters degree in Childhood Development and
Wellbeing, from Manchester Metropolitan University. Since 2018, Mischa
has written and published work on Addiction, Mental Health, Depression, and Eating Disorders. Content reviewed by Laura Morris (Clinical Lead).

Share 0

Last Updated: May 30, 2025